[132] In contrast, Cowley and colleagues have reported that in unpublished studies performed in Han:SPRD rats, the immunosuppressants azathioprine

and cyclosporine failed to attenuate renal disease, suggesting that specific inflammatory pathways may be involved. Although vasopressin V2 receptor antagonists have slowed renal decline in ADPKD patients[153] and have ameliorated interstitial inflammation in renal injury,[139] their effects on inflammation have not been described in any studies in PKD. BUN (42%) SCr (33%) CrCl (85%) BUN (15%) SCr (29%) CrCl (80%) BUN (43%) SCr (41%) CrCl (97%) SUN (∼12%, M) (∼10%, F) SCr (56%) BUN (21%) inflammatory cells (38%) (PAS) MCP-1 mRNA prolif. (38%) PGE2 fibrosis mitosis apoptosis PGE2 release fibrosis Neratinib (∼20%) In summary, this review has attempted to address the potential mechanisms by which interstitial inflammation arises in PKD. Therefore, is interstitial inflammation the result or cause of cyst growth in PKD, see more or simply an external event correlated with the degree of disease? Given that inflammation is a consistent occurrence in PKD, and that potential confounding factors (e.g. anti-microbial responses) can be reasonably excluded, it is plausible that the genetic abnormalities of PKD cause a predisposition toward an inflammatory renal phenotype, which can be activated and exacerbated by subsequent injury. Renal inflammatory

cells are a cardinal feature of PKD, and may be drawn into the interstitium by chemoattractants. Dapagliflozin Chemoattractants and cytokines such as TNF-α probably originate from CEC, and may serve an autocrine function in stimulating further CEC proliferation (refer to Fig. 1). Defective cystoproteins can control the production of pro-inflammatory chemoattractants and cytokines through downstream signalling pathways. Reciprocally, pro-inflammatory cytokines may disrupt cystoprotein

function (summarized in Fig. 2). Thus, the evidence points toward a ‘positive-feedback’ relationship, in which interstitial inflammation is influenced by the pathological and molecular features of PKD and vice-versa. This review has also examined the possible harmful and beneficial effects of interstitial inflammation in PKD. Although macrophages possibly have reparative roles in PKD, several anti-inflammatory therapies have reduced cystic growth and improved renal function, suggesting that inflammation probably has a largely detrimental effect in this disease. Some therapies such as methylprednisolone, have reduced both cystic disease and inflammatory cell infiltration. Other drugs with known anti-inflammatory properties (e.g. pioglitazone), have attenuated disease in PKD, though their respective studies have not published evidence of decreased inflammation. Interestingly, several of the anti-inflammatory drugs that have successfully reduced cyst area and improved renal function, are inhibitors of NF-κB.