1) 4, 5. This association and resultant activation of the inflammasome leads to the activation of caspase-1 from its inactive zymogen pro-caspase-1. Active caspase-1 cleaves the pro-forms of the cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 to their active and secreted forms. Caspase-1 may Rucaparib solubility dmso possess additional functions including regulation of glycolysis pathways 6 and unconventional protein secretion 7; however, in vivo studies demonstrating a role for NLRP3 in these processes are lacking to date. In addition to NLRP3, two other NLR family members have been demonstrated to form inflammasomes and activate caspase-1. The NLRP1 inflammasome is a key mediator

of cell death due to anthrax lethal toxin 8 and the NLRC4 inflammasome is activated by numerous Gram-negative bacteria possessing either a type III or type IV secretion system 9–11. NLRC4 may also interact with another cytosolic NLR, Naip5 to activate caspase-1 in response to cytosolic flagellin 12. Recent studies have

also demonstrated that the cytosolic nucleic acid recognition receptors AIM2 and RIG-I can interact with ASC to form caspase-1 activating inflammasomes 13–17. The NLRP3 inflammasome can be activated in response to a wide array of stimuli (Fig. 1). These activators lack structural or functional similarity making it unlikely that their activation is through Talazoparib cost direct interaction with NLRP3. Rather, a common endogenous molecule upon which these pathways converge is likely the actual ligand for NLRP3. Numerous microbes including various bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoan parasites can activate the NLRP3 inflammasome (reviewed in 18). In addition to microbial activators, endogenous danger signals such as ATP, monosodium urate and amyloid-β have been demonstrated to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. It is interesting to speculate that NLRP3, or its evolutionary ancestor, originally served a primary role in host

defense against pathogens. But rather than sensing specific conserved PAMP as the TLR do, it is capable of detecting a wide swath of divergent pathogens Etofibrate by detecting one of the major consequences of infection, namely, cellular damage. Sequencing of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus genome revealed 222 TLR and 203 NLR, demonstrating the importance of these innate immune receptors in lower species such as the echinoderms 19. As species evolved and vertebrates developed adaptive immune systems some of these early innate NLR involved in pathogen surveillance have likely been co-opted to serve other functions such as responding to metabolic stress, ischemia and trauma. Recent studies suggest that the NLRP3 inflammasome may play a significant role in metabolic disorders and sterile inflammatory responses including type II diabetes mellitus, gout, Alzheimer’s disease and ischemia 6, 20–23.