Indeed, the title of the 16S rRNA gene sequence information under the DDBJ/NCBI/EBI accession number M88138 (ATCC43879) is still ‘Helicobacter sp. “Flexispira taxon 8” 16S ribosomal RNA gene’. This information may be a cause of misunderstanding and the researcher should carefully read both the title and the annotated text. Other provisional names, “Helicobacter westmeadii” [14] and “Helicobacter sp. strain Mainz,” have been assigned to H. cinaedi [15]. H. cinaedi was first isolated from rectal swabs obtained from homosexual men with proctitis, proctocolitis, and enteritis [1], Selleck Raf inhibitor but the number of reports

of H. cinaedi infection has been steadily growing throughout the last two decades. Because early reports mainly described the isolation of these microorganisms from homosexual men or immunocompromised patients, and their presence was attributed to human immunodeficiency virus infection, agammaglobulinemia, or some other underlying disease [16], [17], [18], [19], [20] and [21], the organisms were thought to be related to specific hosts. Recently, however, given that increasing numbers

of infections have also been reported in immunocompetent patients [22], [23], [24] and [25], the patient group affected by H. cinaedi is larger than originally thought. In Japan, the first report describing the isolation of H. cinaedi was published in 2003 [26]. Since Resveratrol then, isolation of this microorganism MI-773 concentration has been reported in patients regardless of gender and within a wide age range, from newborns to the elderly, by many hospitals throughout the country. Matsumoto et al. [27] reported that the H. cinaedi positive rate in blood cultures was 0.06% (6/16,743 samples) of total blood samples and 0.22% (6/2718 samples)

of blood samples with any positive culture, based on a prospective multicenter analysis in 13 hospitals over 6 months in Tokyo. This microorganism is not a clinically scarcity. Indeed, we have encountered many cases of H. cinaedi cellulitis and bacteremia that occurred continuously in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent subjects in hospitals. Now, we recognize that this microorganism should be considered a causative agent of nosocomial infection [24], [28] and [29]. The association of this microorganism with a variety of human infections is receiving a growing amount of attention. H. cinaedi infection causes many kinds of symptoms including fever, abdominal pain, gastroenteritis, proctitis, diarrhea, erysipelas, cellulitis, arthritis, neonatal meningitis, and bacteremia [30]. Recently, a case of meningitis in a healthy adult and that of an axillobifemoral bypass graft infection in an immunocompetent patient were also reported [31] and [32]. Numerous reports have described bacteremia caused by H. cinaedi rather than by other Helicobacter species.

g. Tara Structure). Regional fault systems, considered to be reactivated basement faults, have also been identified in all seismic surfaces in different areas within the model domain. In addition to the major regional fault systems, this study has also identified several local faults. These, local

faults were observed in only one or two seismic surfaces and predated the Triassic. Evans and Roberts (1979) studied many seismic sections within and near the model domain, identifying frequent reverse faulting during the Permian. Much of this previously described fault activity occurred between the deposition of the Aramac Coal Measures (Early Permian) and the Betts Creek Beds (Late Permian). This is suggested by faulting that can be observed in the Aramac Coal Measures seismic surface but is not visible in the Betts Creek Beds seismic surface (Fig. 5). The first Olaparib price episode of tectonic activity in the area occurred prior to the deposition of the Galilee Basin units, as suggested by the significant uplift of the Maneroo Platform, controlled by the Hulton-Rand and Tara Structures (Fig. 4a and b). Tectonic activity after the deposition of the Aramac Coal Measures decreased significantly, and many

of the Early Permian faults appear to be absent in the Betts Creek Beds. Furthermore, most of the faults identified in the Betts Creek Beds are not evident in the Cadna-owie seismic surface (Fig. 5), with the exception of some regional faults (e.g. Hulton-Rand Structure, Tara Structure, Dariven Fault and Maranthona BMS 907351 Monocline), which are restricted to the northern part of the model domain. Early Permian activity is unknown in the Maneroo Platform area as the Galilee Basin sequences are absent there (Fig. 6). Another period of tectonic activity occurred between the deposition of the Cadna-owie and Toolebuc formations (both Early Cretaceous), as many faults observed in the Cadna-owie Formation are not observed in the Toolebuc

Formation (Fig. 5). In addition, most of the faults that impacted on these Eromanga Basin units are restricted to the southern part of the model domainand Early Cretaceous faulting was not observed where the Galilee Basin is present. The Corfield Fault is recognised as the only Early Cretaceous fault in the units of the Galilee and Eromanga basins within the model domain. A last episode isothipendyl of recognisable tectonic activity observed at regional fault systems occurred after the deposition of the Toolebuc Formation. Many of the regional faults have been mapped at the surface by the Geological Survey of Queensland (2012), indicating that an episode of tectonic activity occurred after the deposition of the entire Eromanga Basin sedimentary succession. The Tara Structure vertically displaces the Hutton Sandstone by 265 m (Fig. 4b), with a considerable variation of thickness on the opposing sides of the fault (125 m on the eastern side and only 25 m on the western side).

Data from comparisons between 39 XY*O males and 40 XY MF1 males, and pharmacologic manipulation of steroid sulfatase activities consistently support the role of steroid sulfatase in attention as assessed by 5CSRTT [64]. Interestingly, however, 39 XY*O males exhibit reduced premature responses in the 5CSRTT, suggesting a lower level of impulsivity compared to 40 XY MF1 males [64]. Moreover, BMS-387032 using a recently developed paradigm of the stop-signal reaction time task for evaluating behavioral inhibition and impulsivity [65•], Davies et al. demonstrated that genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of steroid sulfatase resulted in enhanced response control

[66••]. These studies provide evidence that the genetic basis of inattention and impulsivity is dissociable, and support the use of 39 XY*O mice as a genetic model of ADHD without impulsivity. Studies with BDX recombinant inbred strains provide strong evidence for learn more the importance of gene–gene

interactions in attention and impulsivity 67•• and 68••]. Behavioral phenotypes in impulsivity and attention analyzed by the 5CSRTT and PPI tests surpass those of the C57BL/6J and DBA/2J founders. A forward genetic approach utilizing BDX recombinant inbred strains led to the identification of the developmental roles of neuregulin-3 (Nrg3) in the mouse medial prefrontal cortex in regulating impulsive activity [68••]. Nrg3-KO mice have decreased impulsivity. Viral overexpression of Nrg3 in the medial prefrontal cortex of find more wild-type mice increases impulsivity, but does not rescue Nrg3-KO mouse phenotypes [68••]. Thus, the Nrg3 expression level is likely crucial. Nrg-3 binds to the extracellular domain of the ErbB4 receptor tyrosine kinase [69], and is likely associated with attention deficits in humans [70]. ADHD mouse genetic models have become substantially diversified, reflecting the progress in human genetics and supporting the

notion that ADHD has a polygenic nature. Further efforts are needed to establish novel genetic models. For example, some representative genes, such as T-cadherin and metabotropic glutamate receptor 5, which are strongly supported by human genetic studies, have not been experimentally evaluated. Data from BDX recombinant inbred strains clearly indicate the importance of gene-gene interactions. Neuronal mechanisms for attention and impulse control domains are complex and are supported by large neuronal networks. Behavioral phenotypes of current mouse models have been analyzed to different extents, and available tests for assessing attention and impulsivity remain suboptimal. Future studies of mouse models using refined behavioral tests and careful examination of circuit activities will enhance our understanding of the circuit mechanisms underlying attention and impulsivity.

, 2012 and Luthria, 2008). In addition, the oxidation of phenolic compounds should be avoided, since they are involved in the enzymatic browning reaction and consequently lose their phenol function and antioxidant capacity (Nicolas, Richard-Forget, Goupy, Amiot, & Aubert, 1994). It is advisable to use dry, frozen or lyophilised samples to avoid enzyme action (Escribano-Bailón & Santos-Buelga, 2004). The optimisation of the extraction of phenolic compounds is essential to reach an accurate analysis. Response surface methodology (RSM) is an effective tool for optimising this process. Moreover, it is a method

for developing, improving and optimising processes, and it can evaluate the effect of the variables and their interactions

(Farris and selleck Piergiovanni, 2009 and Wettasinghe and Shahidi, 1999). Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of concentrations of the solvents, methanol and selleck screening library acetone, time and temperature on the extraction of apple phenolic compounds and their antioxidant capacity using RSM as the optimisation technique. Gala apples (10 kg) used in the experiments were obtained in the city of Ponta Grossa (25° 05′ 42′′ S 50° 09′ 43′′ O), Paraná, Brazil. The reagents Folin–Ciocalteau, Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetremethychroman-2-carboxylic acid), TPTZ (2,4,6-Tri (2-pyridyl)-s-triazine), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, phloridzin, phloretin, (+)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2, quercetin, quercetin-3-D-galactoside, quercetin-3-β-D-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-rutinoside, aminophylline caffeic acid and gallic acid were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Methanol, acetone, acetic acid and acetonitrile were purchased from J. T. Baker (Phillipsburg, NJ, USA) and sodium nitrite and aluminium chloride from Vetec (Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil) and Fluka (St. Louis, MO, USA), respectively. The liquid nitrogen (99%)

used was produced with StirLIN-1 (Stirling Cryogenics, Dwarka, New Delhi, India). The aqueous solutions were prepared using ultra-pure water (Milli-Q, Millipore, São Paulo, SP, Brazil). The apples were fragmented in a microprocessor (Metvisa, Brusque, SC, Brazil), immediately frozen with liquid nitrogen (1:2, w/v) to avoid the oxidation of the phenolic compounds (Guyot, Marnet, Sanoner, & Drilleau, 2001), and lyophilised (LD 1500, Terroni, São Paulo, SP, Brazil). The freeze-dried material (without seeds) was homogenised by crushing in a mortar. 1 g of the crushed apple was extracted with 60 mL of methanol or acetone in different concentrations, followed by incubation at different temperatures and times (Table 1).

, 2008 and Teixidó et al., 2011). Capillary electrophoresis

has been applied to 5-HMF determination employing the micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MEKC) mode. Morales and Jiménez-Pérez (2001) developed a procedure for determining HMF in milk-based products using MEKC and compared with the classical reversed-phase HPLC method it gives similar values of repeatability and recovery. The 5-HMF peak was resolved using an uncoated fused-silica capillary with phosphate buffer containing sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) (pH 7.5), and separation was completely achieved in 5 min. Silva et al. (2008) applied MEKC for the determination of 5-HMF in honey samples within 5 min. The recovery was 98%

and the limit of detection was 0.025 mg kg−1. More recently, Teixidó et al. (2011) found Selleck VX-809 5-HMF in several foodstuffs, www.selleckchem.com/products/MLN8237.html and the MEKC method (analysis time of 6 min) was compared with the results obtained by liquid chromatography, coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The sample limit of detection (LOD, 0.7 mg kg−1) and limit of quantification (LOQ, 2.5 mg kg−1) were established by preparing the standards in a blank matrix. This study attempted to design a rapid method for the determination of 5-HMF in honey samples, using a MEKC methodology with a 32 factorial design and electrolytes composed of tetraborate/SDS and modified by methanol. The method performed under the optimised crotamiton conditions was validated and further applied in the determination of 5-HMF in honey samples of different geographical and botanical origins. No reports of a

method faster than that presented in this paper using capillary electrophoresis can be found in the literature. The CE assays were conducted in a capillary electrophoresis system (model 7100, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA), equipped with a diode array detector set at 284 nm, a temperature control device maintained at 25 °C and acquisition and data treatment software supplied by the manufacturer (HP ChemStation, rev. A.06.01). An uncoated fused-silica capillary (Polymicro Technologies, Phoenix, AZ, USA) was used, with dimensions of 32.0 cm total length, 8.5 cm effective length, an inner diameter of 50 μm and an outer diameter of 375 μm. The background electrolyte (BGE) was composed of 5 mmol L−1 STB at pH 9.3 containing 120 mmol L−1 SDS. At the beginning of each day, the capillary was conditioned by flushing with 1 mol L−1 NaOH (10 min) followed by a 10 min flush with deionised water and BGE solution (15 min). In between runs, the capillary was reconditioned with the background solution (1 min flush). At the end of each working day, the capillary was rinsed with 1 mol L−1 NaOH (5 min) and water (10 min) and then dried with air (2 min).

57 and 2.54 pg WHO 2005 TEQ/kg body weight (b.w)., and identified seafood, dairy products and meat products as the main sources (EFSA, 2012b). The data presented in this paper can be used in risk calculations where contributions from other sources are known. As an example: 660 g salmon per week would

contribute to 50% of the TWI based on our data from 2011. However, predicting the contribution from other food sources on a global scale is beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore the maximum tolerable intake limits proposed here consider only salmon as the exposure source. The EFSA, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), SCF and WHO have derived TWIs for several of the contaminants which have been evaluated in this paper. TWIs have been established for MK-2206 in vivo some of the pesticides, some metals, and the sum of dioxins and dl-PCBs. For all compounds except Hg and the sum of dioxins

and dl-PCBs, the measured amounts were negligible compared to the current TWIs, therefore calculations were limited to Hg and the sum of dioxins and dl-PCBs. There is a general agreement that 70–100% of the Hg in fish and seafood is present, in its most toxic chemical form, as MeHg+ (Amlund et al., learn more 2007, EFSA, 2012a and EFSA, 2012b). Accordingly, the TWI for MeHg+ was used in the risk calculations of the Norwegian farmed Atlantic salmon fillet. TWIs derived in Europe were chosen for the exposure calculation, SCF TWI for dioxins and dl-PCBs (SCF, 2001), and the EFSA TWI for MeHg+ (EFSA, 2012a and EFSA, 2012b). Based on Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL) observed in the most sensitive rodent studies, the SCF issued a PTWI of 14 pg WHO 1998 TEQ/kg b.w. for dioxins and dl-PCBs (SCF, 2001). This PTWI included an uncertainty

factor of 3.2 based on intraspecies toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic differences. Furthermore, the use of the LOAEL instead of the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL), added an uncertainty factor of 3, resulting in a total uncertainty factor of 9.6. The interspecies differences were already calculated based on examined data, and were therefore not added GABA Receptor again as an uncertainty factor (SCF, 2001). By comparison the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States (US-EPA) issued a PTWI for dioxins and dl-PCBs of 4.9 pg/kg b.w. (EPA, 2012). In 2012 EFSA issued a PTWI for MeHg+ of 1.3 μg/kg b.w (EFSA, 2012a and EFSA, 2012b). This TWI was based on results from epidemiological studies performed in the Faroe Islands and the Seychelles, and the confounding effects of nutrients from fish were also taken into account. Based on the these studies, the US-EPA issued a Reference Dose (RfD) of 0.1 μg/kg b.w. per day (EFSA, 2012a and EFSA, 2012b). The guidelines used in Europe and the USA appear to diverge substantially. Previous food safety assessments of farmed Atlantic salmon have shown varying results.

69, MSE = .30, p < .01, partial η2 = .64. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons suggested that there were significant differences (all ps < .01) between all of the groups in SM (except for Groups 2 and 3, which did not differ [p > .90] and Groups 4 and 5, which did not differ [p > .17]). Importantly, the pattern of results across the three factors suggested that some of the groups demonstrated specific deficits or strengths

on one factor rather than necessarily all factors. Other groups, however, demonstrated deficits on all factors Compound C datasheet or strengths on all factors. Specifically, Group 1 consisted of low ability participants who scored below average on all three factors and tended to have the lowest overall scores on each factor. Group 2 consisted of individuals who were above average on both capacity and AC, but were relatively weak on SM. In fact, this

group had some of the strongest AC scores. Thus, this group demonstrated clear strengths on capacity and AC, but slight deficits on SM. Group 3 consisted of individuals who were close to average on all three factors. Group 4, demonstrated below average capacity and weak to average AC, but above average SM. In fact, this group demonstrated some of the strongest SM scores. Thus, this group seems to be the exact opposite of Group 2 with these individuals demonstrating strengths in SM, but deficits in capacity and somewhat in AC. Indeed, as noted in Footnote 3 this group had some of the lowest K estimates. Finally, Group 5 consisted of high

ability participants who scored high on all three factors and Dolutegravir tended to have the highest overall scores on each factor. Furthermore, as shown in Table 4, the groups tended to differ in their levels of WM storage, WM processing, and gF. Specifically, examining WM storage suggested a significant Protirelin difference between the groups, F(4, 166) = 7.22, MSE = .75, p < .01, partial η2 = .15, with Group 1 scoring generally below the other groups and Group 5 scoring above the other groups. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons suggested that Group 1 scored significantly lower on WM storage than all other groups (all ps < .05) except for Group 3 (p > .19). Groups 2 and 4 only differed from Group 1 (all other p’s > .52) and Group 3 only differed from Group 5 (all other p’s > .19). Examining WM processing suggested a significant difference between the groups, F(4, 166) = 6.87, MSE = .71, p < .01, partial η2 = .15, with Groups 2 and 5 having faster WM processing times than the other groups. Specifically, Bonferroni post hoc comparisons suggested that Groups 2 and 5 differed from the other groups (all p’s < .01), but did not differ from one another (p > .90). Furthermore, the other groups did not differ from one another (all p’s > .90). Thus, both groups that scored high on AC had the fastest WM processing times. Finally, examining gF suggested a significant difference between the groups, F(4, 166) = 14.04, MSE = .53, p < .

, 2014 and Safranyik and Carroll, 2006). As Alfaro et al. (2014) relate, phenotypic plasticity (the capacity of a genotype to express different phenotypes in buy R428 different environments; de Jong, 2005), the ability to adapt genetically, and seed and pollen mobility, are all important attributes in responding to climate change events as well as to other human environmental impacts such

as pollution (Aitken et al., 2008 and Karnosky et al., 1998). High extant genetic diversity and the enormous quantity of seed (each potentially a different genotype) produced by out-crossed parent trees support adaptive responses to change (Petit and Hampe, 2006). The speed at which environments alter in some geographic regions may however be greater than the ability of trees to cope (Jump and Penuelas, 2005). Then, human-mediated responses such as the facilitated

translocation of germplasm and breeding may be required, supported by the high genetic diversity in adaptive traits that is often found within trees’ range-wide distributions (Aitken and Whitlock, 2013 and Rehfeldt et al., 2014). Although the need for forest management practices to adjust to climate change may seem clear to scientists, practical foresters sometimes question this (Milad et al., 2013). Of more concern to practitioners, for example, may be forest loss due to commercial agriculture and illegal (or otherwise unplanned) logging (Guariguata et al., 2012). In this context, more effective than ‘stand alone’ climate-related measures

will be management interventions that are good practice under ‘business selleck as usual’ scenarios. To convince forest managers to engage more actively, they need to be presented with good science-based and economically-costed estimates of the risks and benefits of inaction versus action (Joyce and Rehfeldt, 2013). before Alfaro et al.’s review calls for greater recognition of the role of genetic diversity in promoting resilience (e.g., the economic value of composite provenancing; Bosselmann et al., 2008), moves to improve our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and role of epigenetic effects in responding to climate change; and the development and application of straightforward guidelines for germplasm transfers, where appropriate (Rehfeldt et al., 2014). In the seventh and final review of this special issue, Pritchard et al. (2014) discuss ex situ conservation measures for trees, their integration with in situ approaches, and the particular roles of botanic gardens in conservation. Botanic gardens have participated widely in the collection and storage of tree seed, pollen and herbarium specimens, and in the establishment of living collections in vitro and in arboreta ( BGCI, 2014 and MSB, 2014). They have, however, moved far beyond their traditional role in ex situ conservation and have been widely involved in forest inventory, biological characterisation and threat mapping initiatives that support in situ conservation, as well as in the design of in situ reserves.

The extraction of DNA on the system used guanidinium thiocyanate (Teknova, Hollister, CA) chemical lysis and solid phase DNA separation and purification with paramagnetic beads (Micromod GmbH, Germany) [19]. Two DNA extraction parameters were evaluated to verify the optimized performance of extraction. Boundary studies on two instruments were performed around the standard set of conditions for concentration of paramagnetic beads in 500 μL of lysis buffer and the incubation time for DNA binding to the beads. Bead concentrations tested were: 0.5×, 1×, 1.5×, and 2× and bead incubation times were: 1.5 min, 3 min and 6 min. The standard conditions are

indicated in bold. Six swabs of 1000 M with 100,000 cell load were used for each condition tested. The robustness of the extraction method to remove PCR inhibitors was challenged using model systems BIBW2992 datasheet to simulate what may be encountered from buccal swab collection. Three models of PCR inhibition—coffee, tobacco, and hematin—were Vorinostat order used, and dilutions of each inhibitor were added to 1000 M control swabs containing 25,000 or 100,000 cells. Three replicates for each cell load and inhibitor dilution were performed. The inhibitors were prepared as follows: (1) Brewed black coffee was purchased from Starbucks® and 2 μL, 10 μL, 50 μL, and 100 μL aliquots were pipetted directly onto 1000 M swabs; (2) 2.5 g of Grizzly long cut chewing tobacco (American Snuff Company) was mixed with

25 mL of water, ground in a pestle and mortar, and soaked over the course of a four-hour period. The tobacco slurry was

stored overnight at room temperature and the next morning 2 μL, 10 μL, 50 μL, and 100 μL aliquots of the supernatant were pipetted onto 1000 M control swabs; (3) hematin stock solution of 2 mM was made by dissolving hematin (Sigma–Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) in 0.1 N NaOH and then diluted in sterile water to desired concentrations. Farnesyltransferase 20 μL of each dilution (0.3 mM, 0.6 mM, 1.0 mM, and 2.0 mM) were pipetted onto 1000 M control swabs. The experiments with swabs were performed using three instruments. A mock hematin inhibition study was also performed using the traditional bench methods (e.g. 9700 and 3130xL). PCR reactions were prepared in duplicate with 2 ng of control DNA 007 containing hematin concentrations of: 0 mM, 0.25 mM, 0.3 mM, 0.35 mM, 0.4 mM, 0.45 mM, 0.5 mM and 1 mM and amplified for 28 cycles. The PCR products were separated and analyzed as previously described. The robustness of the GlobalFiler Express assay was tested with an EDTA inhibition study. 0.5 M EDTA (Ambion, TX) was diluted in sterile water and then added directly into the STR reaction vial to final concentrations of 0.1 mM, 0.25 mM, 0.5 mM, 1.0 mM and 1.5 mM. 1000 M control swabs with 25,000 or 100,000 cells were used to test the effect of EDTA addition on generation of a DNA profile. Three replicates for each cell load and inhibitor concentration were performed.

We further propose that readers adaptively shift the degree of engagement of each process so as to efficiently meet task goals (for further discussion see Section 1.4) without expenditure of undue amounts of cognitive resources ( Table 1). It seems clear that all five of the above processes are relevant and have resources devoted to them during

normal reading (hence the check marks in those cells in Table 1); we now turn to how, in different types of proofreading, they may differ in importance relative to normal Quizartinib in vitro reading. When proofreading for errors that produce nonwords, the most obvious change is that both processes related to surface form—wordhood assessment and form validation—increase in importance (hence the up arrows in those cells in Table 1). It is unlikely, on the other hand, that these proofreaders would need to access content, integrate that content across words, or expend resources on word-context validation as thoroughly as during normal reading, because errors could be detected based almost exclusively on surface features and engaging in these processes might unnecessarily slow the proofreader down. Nevertheless,

if accessing content and performing sentence-level processing are not costly, it is possible Selleck Veliparib that these processes would not be de-emphasized, since sentence-level context makes reading more efficient overall ( Bicknell and Levy, 2012, Ehrlich and Rayner, 1981, Morton, 1964 and Rayner and Well, 1996). Thus, we predict that during proofreading for nonwords these processes would be Org 27569 either unchanged (represented by check marks) or de-emphasized (represented by down arrows) as compared with normal reading. Proofreading for errors

that produce wrong words, in contrast, would lead to a different prioritization of component processes: fit into sentence context rather than surface features of words is the critical indicator of error status. This task would de-emphasize (or leave unaffected) wordhood assessment, since wrong words still match to lexical entries, but more heavily emphasize form validation and content access (essential, for example, to identify an erroneous instance of trial that should have been trail, or vice versa). This task would also more heavily emphasize word-context validation. However, it is unclear how sentence-level integration would be affected by proofreading for wrong words in comparison with normal reading (and so all three possibilities are represented): it might be enhanced by the need to perform effective word-context validation, it might be reduced since the depth of interpretation required for successful normal reading may not be necessary or worthwhile for adequate proofreading for wrong words, or it could remain unchanged.