Our findings indicate that epigenetic or genetic changes imprinted in the T2D myotubes may increase abundance of proteins involved in mitochondrial function and energy metabolism. Increased oxidative stress and damage has been observed in skeletal muscle from T2D patients [46]. Whether the oxidative defense system is defective in skeletal

muscle from T2D patients is unclear. In our analysis of myotubes derived from T2D selleck chemicals patients versus NGT subjects, several proteins involved in the oxidative stress response and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were downregulated. The glutathione S-transferase proteins (GSTT1, GSTP1, GSTM2) associated with the NRF2 system were less abundant in myotubes from T2D. GST proteins are induced by NRF2 activation to detoxify electrophilic compounds,

including products of oxidative stress by conjugation with glutathione [47]. Thus, reduced GST protein abundance in T2D may lead to a disturbed oxidative stress defense. Glutathione is the major endogenous antioxidant which plays a role in disease prevention [48]. Levels of glutathione in blood are reduced in diabetes [46], [49] and [50] We therefore investigated whether the proteome data on GST proteins is mirrored by changes in glutathione levels. We found that the total glutathione content was reduced in T2D-derived cells. These changes Ganetespib chemical structure in protein levels and total glutathione content could either indicate that the oxidative defense system is reduced, increasing susceptibility of T2D myotubes to oxidative stress, or that the NRF2 system has coordinately adapted to lower oxidative stress in T2D muscle. Whether the reduced levels of glutathione and GST protein contents in myotubes derived from T2D patients contributes

to metabolic disorders, in connection with increased ROS production and oxidative damage, Immune system requires further investigation. A coordinated decrease in protein content of several heat shock proteins (HSP90A, HSPB1, PPIA) was observed in myotubes derived from T2D patients. In addition to protein folding and unfolding, several heat shock proteins have multifunctional roles. For example, HSP90A plays a key role in endoplasmic reticulum stress response and protein ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) [51], whereas HSPB1 is involved in Akt activation, UPS, stress resistance and actin organization [52]. Furthermore, HSPB1 is suggested to play an important role in insulin resistance [53], lipid metabolism and regulation of metabolically active enzymes. The decreased abundance of heat shock proteins in T2D myotubes is consistent with the hypothesis that loss of homeostatic signaling may lead to a inflammation, T2D [54] and aging [55].

Pourtant, le personnage prend une stature titanesque lorsqu’on connaît ses contributions décisives à plusieurs autres avancées biomédicales majeures : • en syphiligraphie, il propose dès 1906 l’utilisation du microscope à fond noir (Dunkelfeldbeleuchtung) pour l’étude de Treponema pallidum [14]. Il établit, avec le vénérologue Ernst Finger (1856–1939), la transmissibilité de la syphilis par inoculation au singe ainsi que la contagiosité des gommes syphilitiques. Il propose en 1907 une analyse critique pertinente et fructueuse du test de Wassermann [15] ; Au soir de sa vie, Landsteiner s’étonnait parfois qu’on lui ait attribué le Nobel pour

la découverte des groupes sanguins, alors qu’à son avis, il avait fait d’autres travaux plus importants ! Humour rugueux et coquetterie de vieux savant ? Peut-être. Mais comment ne pas y voir, aussi, check details l’ultime lucidité d’un homme exceptionnel. L’auteur déclare ne pas avoir de conflits d’intérêts

en relation avec cet article. “
“Blood transfusion services play a central, underpinning role in health systems by providing safe and adequate supplies of blood and blood products for patients requiring transfusion (blood products are defined as any therapeutic substances derived from human blood, including whole blood, labile blood components and see more blood- or plasma-derived medicinal products [PDMPs]). Availability and safety of blood and blood products remains a major Phosphoglycerate kinase concern in many countries around the world and countries are facing unique challenges in ensuring self-sufficiency in safe blood and blood products based on voluntary non-remunerated blood donations (VNRBD)1[1]. Only 62 countries (32%) of 193 WHO Member States report collecting 100% or more than 99% of their blood supplies for whole blood from VNRBD [2]. Typically these are countries in the higher-income group; where health care systems are more developed and where VNRBD is associated with sufficient

supply and a stable blood donor base. On the other end of the scale, there are many countries in the world where the supply of blood and blood products is insufficient, and where a stable donor base is more difficult to achieve. Typically these are countries in the low- and medium-income group, where supply is met partly with VNRBD as well as with replacement donors and paid donors. Clearly the demand for blood and blood products depends on state of development of the local health care system, but in countries where less than 1% of the general population donates (77 Member States), supply is clearly insufficient to meet the needs of patients. Voluntary non-remunerated blood donors are the cornerstone of a safe and sufficient blood supply and are the first line of defense against the transmission of infection through transfusion.

a.s.l. From planting to harvesting, mean rainfall and temperature range were respectively 1121 mm and 16.7–28.7 °C at Namulonge, 1095 mm and 17.3–29.2 °C at Jinja, and 424 mm and 18.5–29.4 °C at Nakasongola. Twelve genotypes (Table 1) were sourced from farmers’ fields and from the National Cassava Breeding Programme (NCBP) at the National Crops Resources Research Institute, Namulonge. Genotypes from farmers’ BAY 80-6946 cell line fields were landraces, while genotypes from the NCBP were introductions from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and genotypes developed

by crossing cassava lines from the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) with lines from Uganda. Selection of the genotypes was based on their performance for storage root yield, early bulking and relative degrees of field resistance to two diseases prevalent in Uganda: cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) and cassava mosaic disease (CMD). The trial at each location

was laid out in a randomised complete block design with three replications. Healthy stem cuttings each 25 cm in length were horizontally planted in a flat seedbed at a spacing of 1 m × 1 m giving a population density of 10,000 plants ha− 1. Each plot measured 2 m × 6 m, comprising 3 rows of 6 plants each. The first and last rows and the first and last plant within the middle row of each plot were considered as border plants. The plots and blocks were separated by 2.0 m and 2.5 m Selleck APO866 alleys, to reduce inter-plot and inter-block plant competition, respectively. The trials were conducted without supplemental irrigation and weeded regularly. Data for the following traits were collected from a net plot of four randomly selected and hand-uprooted plants of each genotype: storage root number (SRN); storage root mass (SRM); FSRY and cassava brown streak disease root necrosis (CBSD-RN). Cassava mosaic disease severity (CMD-S) was assessed during the crop growth at 6 MAP on an increasing scale of 1–5, where: 1 = no symptoms;

and 5 = severe mosaic symptoms [16]. Storage roots of the four plants were bulked, counted and weighed Sodium butyrate to obtain SRN and SRM (kg), respectively. The FSRY (t ha− 1) per genotype was then estimated from the SRM of the four-plant bulk of storage roots as: FSRY=(SRM×10,000)/(4×1000).FSRY=SRM×10,000/4×1000. Storage root necrosis due to CBSD (CBSD-RN) was scored on an increasing scale of 1 to 5 where 1 = no visible necrosis, and 5 = severe necrosis [17]. The data for each location were first analysed independently and then the error variances for the environments were tested for homogeneity using Hartley’s Fmax test [18]. The differences were non-significant, and accordingly an unweighted combined AMMI analysis of variance was conducted across the locations. Correlations among various plant parameters were calculated as Spearman correlation coefficients [19].

This categorization was chosen based on the recommendation that most Americans consume at least half of all grains as WG or 3 oz eq/d [8]. Furthermore, the study populations were divided into tertiles based on total dietary fiber intake (in g/d): for adults (<11.6, 11.6-19.2, >19.2) and children and adolescents (<9.6, 9.6-15.4, >15.4). The percentage of individuals among different fiber tertiles was then assigned to the corresponding WG group. The food sources of total dietary fiber were calculated for children/adolescents and adults and reported by WG intake group.

Because RTE cereals are a primary source of WG, the percentage INK 128 purchase of fiber contributed by RTE cereals was calculated by the WG intake group. Categories of RTE cereals included WG with added bran, WG with no added

bran, non-WG with added bran, and non-WG with no added bran. All statistical analyses were performed with SAS 9.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). Dietary intake sample weights were applied to all analyses to account for the unequal probability of selection, noncoverage, and nonresponse bias resulting from oversampling of low-income persons, adolescents, elderly persons, http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Rapamycin.html African Americans, and Mexican Americans. Demographic, socioeconomic, and physical activity information was obtained from their respective NHANES questionnaires. Mean ± SEs for WG (in oz eq/d; Table 1) and total dietary fiber intake (in g/d; Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4) were calculated using PROC SURVEYMEANS, whereas the percentage of individuals per WG intake group and per WG intake group by fiber tertile (Table 1 and Table 2) was calculated using PROC SURVEYFREQ. Doxacurium chloride Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the SURVEYREG procedure to determine if total dietary fiber intake differed across WG intake groups by fiber tertile and within the same tertile by WG intake group (Table 2). Multinomial logistic regression was performed to compare odds

of falling in different WG intake groups among different total dietary fiber intake tertiles (Table 2). Mean intake from each food source was divided by total intake to calculate percent contribution of fiber from different food sources using PROC SURVEYMEANS (Table 3). Similarly, mean fiber intake from different RTE cereals was calculated using PROC SURVEYMEANS (Table 4). Analysis of variance was used to determine if total dietary fiber differed for various food sources and RTE cereal type by WG intake group (Table 3 and Table 4). Mean intake from each WG food source was divided by total WG intake to calculate percent contribution of WG from different food sources using PROC SURVEYMEANS (Fig.). A P value of .05 or less was considered statistically significant. Approximately half of children/adolescents (49.9%) and adults (51.7%) were female. Most children/adolescents and adults were non-Hispanic white (57.7% and 68.3%, respectively), whereas 11.

It would appear that in both studies, the categories involve the same mixture of treatments and treatment targets that is found in much more detail in the PBE studies. Hart et al93 have presented reliability

and validity data on operational definitions of learning-based treatment contents in TBI rehabilitation. They used a bottom-up process to develop a classification of skilled performance training, with a dividing line between treatments targeting function (more or less equivalent to the ICF concept of bodily function) and treatments aimed at altering ICF activity. In the terminology of DeJong,2 the PBE methodology and similar approaches to classification of rehabilitation interventions are an experience-driven, bottom-up, inductive method guided by front-line clinicians’ opinion and by scientific STA-9090 clinical trial evidence, where such is available. A perusal of any rehabilitation journal will indicate that studies evaluating treatments are increasing in number but are still relatively scarce7, 8 and 94; the articles that are published tend to lack qualitative and quantitative specification of the ingredients of the treatment provided.9 Quantification of the amount of treatment, other than by gross indicators (eg, length of stay or number of sessions), is largely absent.7 Until recently, the most sophisticated studies used

hours of therapy provided by specific disciplines1, 12, 95, 96, 97 and 98 or number of visits.99 However, given that every rehabilitation discipline may deliver multiple interventions and that different disciplines may deliver the same Veliparib manufacturer intervention, it is not surprising that

these studies have not been very effective at explaining differences in outcomes, either among therapists or among programs. For instance, analyses of the data of the inpatient stroke rehabilitation PBE study2 suggest that spending more time per day in PT and OT is not associated Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase with better outcomes. However, when PT and OT are differentiated into specific treatment activities, there are significant improvements in outcome prediction.100 For instance, patient characteristics by themselves explained 40% of variance in discharge FIM motor scores for moderate stroke and 45% for severe strokes. When total PT and OT treatment time was added, this did not result in a significant increase in variance explained. However, when total time in specific OT and PT activities was added to the regression equation, the percent of variance explained increased to 52% and 68%, respectively.101 The PBE studies have taken advantage of the fact that therapists completed specially developed forms after every treatment session on which they noted not only what activities were delivered, but also how much time (in multiples of 5min) was dedicated to each. A more detailed view than in the older studies, which only had administrative data on hours by discipline, was possible and has been applied extensively.

Haier, Jung, Yeo, Head, and Alkire (2005) found that men have more gray matter (neurons, synapses, buy Cabozantinib dendrites) in fronto-parietal brain regions whereas women have more white matter (myelinated axons). Moreover, in males, intelligence is correlated more with gray matter areas whereas in females white matter areas are correlated higher with intelligence (for a review cf. Deary, Penke, & Johnson, 2010). Remarkably, during explicit

stereotype exposure the neural efficiency phenomenon could no longer be observed, neither for boys nor girls. In this condition boys received the message that they usually perform better than girls. Boys might have reframed this stereotype as a challenge. Considering a test situation as a challenge is known to lead to increased performance (Alter et al., 2010 and Keller, 2007). The arousal associated with this challenge could also result in increased brain activation, especially in high IQ boys who typically IWR-1 cell line show lower brain activation (Neubauer & Fink, 2009). This might explain why no neural efficiency was observed in this

specific task condition. In a similar vein, the reported brain activation pattern found for girls in the stereotype exposure condition might also be the consequence of the increased performance pressure. However, in contrast to boys the stereotypic expectancies for girls result in a threat experience, because of the possibility to confirm the stereotype. This argument appears to be supported by the finding that the stereotype exposure condition was associated with higher arousal in terms of higher TRP. Moreover, the selective increases in brain activation due to increased arousal could again have counteracted the general phenomenon of neural efficiency. Our results provide preliminary evidence that the stereotype threat itself cannot explain sex differences in neural efficiency in visuo-spatial tasks. Results corroborate the neural efficiency hypothesis for men only when

sex differences were described to be irrelevant. This suggests that Adenosine triphosphate visuo-spatial sex differences in brain activation patterns may be caused by biological but also by long term social factors like learned or socially determined interests and not only short-lived stressing effects of stereotype threat on performance. It still has to be acknowledged that activated stereotypes significantly affected brain activation, but they are probably not responsible for the reported sex differences in neural efficiency during visuo-spatial tasks. Therefore, it is still important to consider the phenomenon of stereotype threat in forthcoming studies. A replication of the present findings including a verbal task could be of particular interest for future investigations, as this would represent a stereotype threat for boys and a stereotype lift for girls.

Furthermore, high loads of allocthonous material into the pelagic environment are expected from different sources: terrestrial, littoral and river discharges (Fahl and Nöthig, 2007 and Montemayor et al., 2011). In the temperate and eutrophic Bahía Blanca Estuary, the phytoplankton seasonality and composition has been studied for decades and the

winter-early spring bloom has been characterized as the most important biomass event over the annual cycle (Guinder et al., 2010 and references therein). The inner zone of the estuary is the most productive area along the main channel, Navitoclax cell line as a result of high abundance and diversity of both planktonic and benthic communities (Elías, 1992, Hoffmeyer et al., 2008 and Popovich and Marcovecchio, 2008). In this shallow inner zone, a tight benthic–pelagic selleck kinase inhibitor coupling is expected. For instance, resting stages of diatoms (Guinder et al., 2012) and zooplankton resting eggs (Berasategui et al., 2013) have been found lying in the sediments and germinating in the pelagic habitat after resuspension. Conversely, a marked difference in the species composition has been found between plankton

and benthos: the phytoplankton is dominated by centric diatoms while the dense microbial mats are densely formed by pennates diatoms and cyanobacterias (Pan et al., 2013 and Parodi and Barría de Cao, 2003). This suggests low exportation of phytoplankton cells to the bottom

either by intense grazing in the water column or high degradation processes of the organic matter. However, little is known so far on vertical transport of phytoplankton and organic matter; only short-term observations have been done during a tidal cycle (Guinder et al., 2009a). Tracking the production and fate of the organic matter produced in the surface of the water column during the blooming season will elucidate the potential benthic–pelagic interactions and the remineralization capacity of the system in the highly productive inner zone of the Bahía Blanca Estuary. In this work our goals were (1) to evaluate the evolution of the winter-early spring phytoplankton bloom in surface waters assessing the species succession, size structure, duration and magnitude of the bloom in relation to environmental factors, Oxalosuccinic acid and (2) to characterize the settled material inside sediment collectors in terms of accumulated particulate suspended matter (PSM) and organic matter (POM), chlorophyll and phaeopigments concentrations, and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios (C:N). Overall, we aim to obtain an approach to the modulating factors of the winter phytoplankton bloom and its potential influence in the underlying sediments. The Bahía Blanca Estuary (38°42′–39°25′ S, 61°50′–62°22′ W) is located in a temperate climate region on the southwestern Atlantic, Argentina. The estuary is mesotidal (mean tidal amplitude of 3.

The peak fractions were

lyophilized and characterized by MS, analytic HPLC and bioassay analysis (Fig. 2D, right). Both toxins’ IC50 values for the different channels were determined, by measuring the extent of peak current inhibition. GTX1-15 is more potent as a TTX-S channel blocker, it has an IC50 of 0.007 μM (h = 1.6) on hNaV1.7 channels (n = 4), 0.12 ± 0.06 μM (h = 1.4 ± 0.4) on hNaV1.3 channels (n = 5), up to 2 μM had no significant effects on hNaV1.5 (n = 4) and 0.93 μM had no effect on hNaV1.8 (5 ± 3%, n = 4) (See Table 1 and Fig. 3A and B). In some cases double peaks were observed such as in learn more Fig. 3B, right. A possible explanation may arise from our observations in ND7-23 which natively express large TTX- sensitive current, alongside exogenously expressed NaV1.8 channels. There, the peak to the left (the lower voltage activated NaV current) is the TTX sensitive component,

while the peak to the right is the NaV1.8 current (data not shown). While using these cells we have used TTX to largely isolate the Nav1.8 current (see Methods section). However, in some cases 600 nM TTX were not efficient in fully inhibiting the low voltage activated component as seen in Fig. 3B and analysis was performed on the NaV1.8 component only. VSTx-3 was also more potent towards the examined TTX-S channels, AZD4547 mouse but it is also a potent blocker of NaV1.8 channels. VSTx-3 has an IC50 of 0.19 ± 0.02 μM (h = 1.5 ± 0.2) on hNaV1.3 channels (n = 5), and an IC50 of 0.43 ± 0.14 μM (h = 1.6 ± 0.6) on hNaV1.7 channels (n = 4), up to 1 μM (14 ± 3%, n = 5) had only very small effects on hNaV1.5 and IC50 for hNaV1.8 channel inhibition (n = 5) was 0.77 ± 0.84 μM (h = 0.8 ± 0.04) (See Table 1 Dolutegravir price and Fig. 3C and

D). Both toxins inhibited the cloned human and rat NaV channels with similar potencies. GTX1-15 inhibited the rat NaV1.3 channel with IC50 of 0.17 ± 0.07 μM (h = 1.3 ± 0.4) (n = 6). VSTx-3 inhibited the rat NaV1.3 channel with IC50 of 0.21 ± 0.04 μM (h = 1.5 ± 0.2) (n = 5) and rat NaV1.8 channels with IC50 of 0.29 ± 0.08 μM (h = 0.8 ± 0.2) (n = 5) (compare to the potency on the human channel in Table 1). Voltage sensor toxin 3 (VSTx3), was originally isolated from the venom of the related tarantula G. rosea, by means of potassium channel voltage sensor affinity column ( Ruta and MacKinnon, 2004)and demonstrated to be a weak inhibitor of the archaebacterial K+ channel, KVAP. In another work GTx1-15 was recently isolated from the venom of the same tarantula, and its effects as a T-type CaV channels ( Ono et al., 2011) or NaV channels ( Murry et al., 2013) blocker were described. Here we describe the isolation of these two peptides from the venom of the P. scrofa spider and their biochemical characterization, chemical synthesis and in vitro characterization as potent sodium channel blockers.

There are studies reporting on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of açaí because it presents high antioxidant capacity in vitro [6] and [7], antioxidant potential in vivo [8], [9], [10] and [11], anti-inflammatory properties [12] and [13], and proapoptotic Veliparib and antiproliferative activities against HL-60 leukemia cancer cells [14]. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that açaí promotes an

improvement in the markers of metabolic disease risk. Elevated levels of total and non–high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (HDL-C) in the serum and the atherogenic index of rats fed a hypercholesterolemic diet were reduced after diet supplementation with açaí pulp [15]. Supplementation of 2% açaí in food increased the lifespan of sod1 RNAi female flies that were fed a high-fat diet compared

with nonsupplemented control flies. Furthermore, açaí administration decreased the transcript level of phosphoenol-pyruvate carboxykinase (Pepck), a key enzyme controlling gluconeogenesis [16]. The long-term administration of açaí seed extract protected C57BL/6J mice fed a high-fat diet that was designed to promote the phenotypic and metabolic characteristics of metabolic syndrome [17]. Açaí juice had atheroprotective effects in hyperlipidemic apolipoprotein E–deficient mice fed a high-fat diet [11] and markedly improved the lipid profile and attenuated atherosclerosis in New Zealand rabbits fed a cholesterol-enriched diet [18]. The cited studies demonstrate that the consumption of açaí improves serum lipid profile and can exert an atheroprotective effect; Bortezomib in vivo however, it is not known whether açaí interferes in hepatic cholesterol metabolism. The liver plays a BCKDHA key role in cholesterol homeostasis because it controls the supply and removal pathways. Cholesterol biosynthesis is partially governed at the transcriptional level by sterol regulatory

element–binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) [19]. When cells are deprived of cholesterol, the SREBPs embedded in the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum are cleaved, enter the nucleus, and bind to the promoters of key genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Thus, cleavage activation of SREBP results in increased low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R)–mediated plasma cholesterol uptake and increased cholesterol biosynthesis, in which 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMG CoA-R) is a rate-limiting enzyme. Both the LDL-R and HMG CoA-R genes have a sterol regulatory element in their promoter regions and are commonly regulated by SREBP-2 [20], [21] and [22]. In contrast, the liver eliminates excess cholesterol from the body either by direct secretion into the bile or after its conversion into bile acids via an enzymatic pathway governed by the rate-limiting enzyme cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) [23] and [24].

59 g/100 g. This indicate a little variation non significant in the studied levels. From results presented in Tables 1and 3, the levels that produce a satisfactory result for uronic acid are a temperature selleck chemicals llc of ∼95 °C and a time of ∼95 min. In this work, the model was built only for the yield of pectin from cacao pod husks. Equation (1) shows the model using the codified coefficients. equation(1) Yield(%)=8.5+0.75Temp.−0.402Temp.+0.31Time−0.132Time−0.02Temp.×TimeYield(%)=8.5+0.75Temp.−0.40Temp.2+0.31Time−0.13Time2−0.02Temp.×Time The model was validated using the plot of the observed vs. predicted values and the plot of the observed vs. raw residuals (Teófilo & Ferreira, 2006); both are presented

in Fig. 1. These plots show that the values predicted by the model present a low error, and thus, the model is able to prediction, i.e., the model is fitted. The surface of this model (Fig. 2) was built based on decodified coefficients and reveals a significant increase in the pectin yield with simultaneous increases ABT-263 nmr in temperature and time. Based upon the data, a possible condition to maximize pectin yield from cacao pod husks could be the use of aqueous citric acid

at pH 3.0/95 °C/95 min to achieve approximately 9.0 g/100 g yield (within the levels studied). If the moisture content of CPHF is considered (8.5 g/100 g), this value is 9.8 g/100 g. Following the optimized conditions above cited (pH 3.0/95 °C/95 min) using citric acid, a fraction called CA-HYP (citric-acid high-yield pectin) was obtained from cacao pod husks in an experimental yield of 10.1 ± 0.3 g/100 g, which

is even greater than the expected value (9.0 g/100 g). If the moisture of CPHF is considered (8.5 g/100 g), the yield increases to 11.0 g/100 g, reaching the amounts obtained with apple pectin (Rolin, 1993; 10–15 g/100 g). The experimental yield of CA-HYP was higher than those obtained for pectins extracted from yellow passion fruit rind over with citric acid (3.5–8.4 g/100 g, Yapo, 2009a, 2009b), but lower than the mean yield for pectins extracted with citric acid from apple pomace (13.75 g/100 g, Canteri-Schemin et al., 2005). In comparison with pectins previously isolated from cacao pod husks, CA-HYP was obtained in a yield similar to the highest value obtained by Adomako (1972) by mild acid extractions (0.2 N HOAc, 8–11 g/100 g yield) and superior than those obtained by Barazarte et al. (2008) with EDTA at acidic pH (2.6–4.7 g/100 g yield) or that of the pectin extracted with nitric acid under optimization for high uronic acid content (9.0 g/100 g, Vriesmann, Teófilo, et al., 2011). Attri and Maini (1996) extracted pectins from galgal peels (an indigenous variety of lemon) with different mineral and organic acids and observed that mineral acids gave higher yields than did the organic acids. In contrast, Klieman et al.