But inevitably with the creation of settler, mission, and managerial Raf phosphorylation colonies in their territories, transformations took place in indigenous political economies that led to modifications in their continued relations with the environment as they became incorporated into the modern world system. Second, the advent of European colonialism produced unprecedented environmental impacts in most areas of the world, which may have led to significant declines in biomass and diversity in some regions (Richards,

2003). We argue that the early modern world system differed from previous kinds of human–ecosystem relationships in the scale and intensity of environmental modifications that took place. The founding of settler colonies, Venetoclax molecular weight mission agrarian systems, plantations, fur trade outposts, and fishing and whaling factories had significant consequences for maritime and terrestrial ecosystems in temperate and tropical islands and continents around

the world. Third, in considering the environmental transformations that took place with European colonialism, it is crucial to undertake detailed studies of specific regions to understand fully the impacts that these changes had on indigenous populations and local ecosystems. The changes that unfolded with colonialism were not just the result of European agency and the establishment of diverse kinds of colonial enterprises, but also took place through complicated articulations Fenbendazole between natural processes (e.g., dispersal of weeds), decisions made by various indigenous and/or culturally diverse actors, and colonial policies regarding indigenous practices (e.g., burning restrictions, cessation of hunting and gathering, etc.). How these diverse factors played out varied greatly in local contexts in the Americas, Oceania, India, Africa, and Asia. We believe our case study from one colonial province (Alta and Baja California) encapsulates many of the current issues involving the Anthropocene. Most scholars would argue that the Anthropocene did not

begin until quite late, after AD 1850 in Alta California with the Gold Rush, statehood, and massive immigration. But we argue there is substantial evidence to argue for a much longer chronology beginning with the creation of anthropogenic landscapes by native peoples over centuries or millennia. This was followed rather abruptly by the establishment of managerial and mission colonies into the Californias in the 1600s to the early 1800s. The founding of a string of Jesuit, Franciscan, and Dominican missions and a Russian fur trade outpost transformed indigenously created landscapes, modified marine and estuarine ecosystems with the extermination of keystone species, and introduced new agrarian practices and the rapid spread of weeds and livestock that changed terrestrial habitats.