Data from comparisons between 39 XY*O males and 40 XY MF1 males, and pharmacologic manipulation of steroid sulfatase activities consistently support the role of steroid sulfatase in attention as assessed by 5CSRTT [64]. Interestingly, however, 39 XY*O males exhibit reduced premature responses in the 5CSRTT, suggesting a lower level of impulsivity compared to 40 XY MF1 males [64]. Moreover, BMS-387032 using a recently developed paradigm of the stop-signal reaction time task for evaluating behavioral inhibition and impulsivity [65•], Davies et al. demonstrated that genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of steroid sulfatase resulted in enhanced response control

[66••]. These studies provide evidence that the genetic basis of inattention and impulsivity is dissociable, and support the use of 39 XY*O mice as a genetic model of ADHD without impulsivity. Studies with BDX recombinant inbred strains provide strong evidence for learn more the importance of gene–gene

interactions in attention and impulsivity 67•• and 68••]. Behavioral phenotypes in impulsivity and attention analyzed by the 5CSRTT and PPI tests surpass those of the C57BL/6J and DBA/2J founders. A forward genetic approach utilizing BDX recombinant inbred strains led to the identification of the developmental roles of neuregulin-3 (Nrg3) in the mouse medial prefrontal cortex in regulating impulsive activity [68••]. Nrg3-KO mice have decreased impulsivity. Viral overexpression of Nrg3 in the medial prefrontal cortex of find more wild-type mice increases impulsivity, but does not rescue Nrg3-KO mouse phenotypes [68••]. Thus, the Nrg3 expression level is likely crucial. Nrg-3 binds to the extracellular domain of the ErbB4 receptor tyrosine kinase [69], and is likely associated with attention deficits in humans [70]. ADHD mouse genetic models have become substantially diversified, reflecting the progress in human genetics and supporting the

notion that ADHD has a polygenic nature. Further efforts are needed to establish novel genetic models. For example, some representative genes, such as T-cadherin and metabotropic glutamate receptor 5, which are strongly supported by human genetic studies, have not been experimentally evaluated. Data from BDX recombinant inbred strains clearly indicate the importance of gene-gene interactions. Neuronal mechanisms for attention and impulse control domains are complex and are supported by large neuronal networks. Behavioral phenotypes of current mouse models have been analyzed to different extents, and available tests for assessing attention and impulsivity remain suboptimal. Future studies of mouse models using refined behavioral tests and careful examination of circuit activities will enhance our understanding of the circuit mechanisms underlying attention and impulsivity.