DNA or RNA are produced from sorted cells, and sequenced via different technologies (454, Illumina, Solid – see below). Sequencing methods have been part of mainstream biology since the 1980s. The novelty of immunosequencing comes from the recent rapid development of techniques and the exponential reduction in cost of sequencing. The number of sequences that can be produced within a single run is currently around 400 billion bases and improves regularly. This leads, for example,

to the possibility of sequencing all the T or B cells of small organisms, such as the zebrafish (which is discussed later). At the rate at which sequencing technologies progress, larger organisms such as the mouse will follow. In humans the MK1775 rationale is different, and the hope is to obtain Gemcitabine nmr a sufficient amount of sequences to provide biomarkers for disease risk, diagnosis or prognosis.

The following text details some of the technologies and some of the recent achievements in this field. In this review we focus on two technologies: Illumina (Solexa; San Diego, CA)11 and Roche 454 (San Francisco, CA).11,12 The underlying technology for both machines is ‘sequencing by synthesis’, which involves the sequencing of the complementary strand of a given sequence with an enzymatic reaction. Each machine uses a different approach; we briefly detail them here. Illumina uses reversible deoxy-nucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) terminators. DNA segments are attached to primers on a slide and amplified with four types of dideoxy-NTPs (ddNTPs). These ddNTPs are labelled with a fluorescent dye and blocked at the 3′-OH, ensuring that only one nucleotide is added at

each step. After incorporation, the remaining nucleotides are washed away. A scan detects the last nucleotide DOK2 added and the fluorescent blocking label is chemically removed, enabling the next sequencing cycle to start.11,13 The 454 sequencing uses a pyrosequencing method, which consists of two steps. First the DNA is cut and attached at both ends to oligonucleotide adaptors. These fragments are then individually attached to a bead, and each bead is amplified by PCR in droplets of an oil–water micelle, generating multiple copies of the same DNA sequence. These micelles also contain enzymes for the sequencing step. Each nucleotide type is added separately; one or more identical nucleotides may be added at the same time. When each nucleotide is incorporated, it releases a pyrophosphate which will eventually produce light through the luciferase enzyme. The light strength is proportional to the number of added nucleotides.12,13 Different machines provide different advantages and disadvantages. Compared with 454-based sequencing, Illumina sequencing presents a better yield. A single Illumina run (which would take roughly 4–5 days) may produce up to 400 giga-bases of sequence. The 454 yields less – ∼ 1 giga-base.