So far, however, none of these models has been able to recapitulate all key features of PD [85]. Importantly, most transgenic models have failed to induce significant SN degeneration, LB formation and a clear PD phenotype [86]. In addition, this candidate-based research paradigm is problematic as most PD patients do not exhibit pathogenic gene mutations at the basis of their condition, and, perhaps with the exception of α-SYN, it remains to be established to which extent molecular abnormalities observed in monogenic

PD and their animal counterparts are truly relevant to study those underlying sporadic PD. It is generally thought that a combination selleck of environmental factors along with aging initiate a cascade of pathological cellular and molecular events ultimately leading to neuronal demise in genetically

susceptible individuals. Many mechanisms have been shown to sensitize neurons to death but the exact combination and succession of events at work in PD still need to be established. Table 2 summarizes some of the major evidence supporting common hypotheses surrounding PD pathogenesis, Selleckchem INCB018424 which were gathered from recent studies of sporadic and familial PD cases as well as animal models of PD. Brain deposition of insoluble aggregates containing abnormal proteins, which results in the formation of neuronal intracytoplasmic LB in PD, is a hallmark of many neurodegenerative disorders and as such, may underlie a common pathogenic mechanism of neuronal death. Alpha-SYN, whose gene was found mutated in inherited automosal dominant PD cases, seems to play a central role in sporadic PD as it notably turned out to Thalidomide be a major constituent

of LB. The mechanisms of aggregation and protein toxicity in PD remain unclear but multiple studies suggest that α-SYN overexpression or misfolding resulting from mutations or post-translational modifications (i.e., nitration, phosphorylation, ubiquitination) may confer toxic properties to the protein and increase its propensity to aggregate [123]. In fact, α-SYN aberrant soluble oligomeric conformations also known as protofibrils might be the more toxic entities. Increasing numbers of aggregation-prone proteins are being identified in LB such as parkin, indicating that α-SYN might not be the only key player. Unraveling the exact composition of LB could provide some clues on other proteins potentially playing a role in PD neurotoxicity. Under pathological conditions such as proteostatic impairment or during normal aging, the propensity to protein misfolding and aggregation might be enhanced.