The Airn and Kcnq1ot1 genes are up to several hundred kilobases away from the EXEL genes they regulate ( Figure 1a and b), and in both cases correlative evidence suggests that the ncRNA product is causing repression at a distance, as described for Kcnq1ot1 above. In the placenta, the Airn macro ncRNA product is located in close proximity to the silent paternal promoter of the EXEL gene Slc22a3 that also carries a repressive H3K9me3 histone mark [ 35••]. Silencing of Slc22a3 Ixazomib manufacturer depends on the lysine methyltransferase EHMT2 [ 35••] whose main activity is to catalyse H3K9me2, but which can also catalyse H3K9me3 at some loci [ 30, 36 and 37].

As Airn also associates with EHMT2 in placenta, it is possible that the Airn ncRNA product is responsible for the recruitment of EHMT2 to the Afatinib clinical trial Slc22a3 promoter and therefore for its silencing. The Tagging and Recovery of Associated Proteins (TRAP) method that is dependent on detecting the ncRNA by in situ hybridization was used to detect the close proximity of the Airn ncRNA and the Slc22a3 promoter [ 35••]. Interestingly

this technique was initially used to discover a chromosome loop connecting enhancers in the β-globin locus control region with the β-globin promoter [ 38]. Applying the Vitamin B12 same concept to the Airn TRAP data implies that the Slc22a3 promoter is close to the Airn transcription unit in three-dimensional space. With this in mind we propose a model consistent with the published data, where the mature ncRNA product is not responsible for silencing genes at a distance, but rather Airn transcription blocks the binding of transcriptional activators that are required to facilitate chromosomal looping and activation of Slc22a2 and Slc22a3 expression. In this model, early development is defined by a ground state chromatin conformation that allows low-level biallelic expression of protein-coding

genes on both parental alleles (Figure 2a and b, top). This ground state is well established for Igf2r in pre-implantation embryos [ 39 and 40], and for Slc22a2 and Slc22a3, which are not upregulated until post-implantation [ 11••]. In this ground state Airn is not made, because DNA methylation of the ICE prevents Airn expression on the maternal chromosome [ 11••] and most probably essential transcription factors are not yet expressed to activate the paternal allele [ 41]. In the post-implantation embryo, following the binding of transcriptional activators, activating loops form on the maternal chromosome between enhancers and the promoters of Slc22a2 and Slc22a3, causing their upregulation ( Figure 2a, middle and bottom).