This does not exclude that free ThDP might have other physiological roles. Conclusion In E. coli, AThTP can be synthesized from free cellular ThDP and ADP or ATP. It accumulates (up to 15% of total thiamine) in response to different conditions of metabolic stress that impair bacterial learn more growth: carbon starvation, metabolic inhibition or dissipation of the electrochemical proton gradient. These conditions are associated with different degrees of energy failure, but there is no direct relationship between AThTP production and decreased intracellular ATP levels. It might be argued

that AThTP is a kind of ATP storage form. This is however unlikely as the maximum concentrations attained are two orders of magnitude lower than ATP concentrations. Furthermore, hydrolysis of AThTP yields ThDP and therefore, the other product of hydrolysis must be AMP and not ATP. Our results show that AThTP accumulation is inhibited by high intracellular concentrations of ThTP. This may explain at least in part, that the two compounds never accumulate together in E. coli cells. It is finally demonstrated that glucose and other substrates yielding pyruvate are very effective to induce the fast disappearance of AThTP after prolonged Etomoxir cell line incubation

of the cells in the absence of a carbon source. Surprisingly, the same substrates also enhance the appearance of AThTP when the proton motive force is abolished. Those data suggest that intracellular AThTP levels are regulated by multiple Amylase factors, including the electrochemical proton gradient, the intracellular concentration of ThTP and an unidentified factor whose synthesis is linked to pyruvate oxidation. With this respect it is noteworthy that there is an important accumulation of cAMP during carbon starvation in E. coli due to the stimulation of adenylate cyclase. The regulation of this enzyme is dependent on substrate uptake systems, but not on Δp or decreased ATP levels [23]. Furthermore, uncouplers such as DNP or CCCP decrease adenylate EPZ015666 order cyclase activity, suggesting that the well-known catabolite repression in E. coli is not involved in increased AThTP levels during carbon

starvation. The fact that E. coli strains deficient in RelA and SpoT activity normally synthesize AThTP suggests that (p)ppGpp and the stringent response are not involved AThTP synthesis. This hypothesis is further supported by the absence of effect of serine hydroxamate on its accumulation. AThTP is never observed in growing bacteria, or under conditions where ATP levels are high. This, suggests that AThTP might be a factor involved in the adaptation of the bacteria to conditions of energy stress. However, a low energy charge does only lead to AThTP accumulation under conditions where ThTP is absent. Methods Chemicals All chemicals were either from Sigma-Aldrich NV/SA (Bornem, Belgium) or from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) and of the highest purity available. ThTP and AThTP were prepared as described [1, 24]. E.